St. Thomas Aquinas begins his moral theology or theological ethics with the question of the last end of human life, namely, perfect beatitude (cf. STh I-II, q. 1).
Following the Greek philosopher Aristotle, Aquinas tells us that “every agent acts for an end,” and therefore, the last end or goal is the first thing we need to know before we may journey with sense. The intermediate ends, if they are good, are directed to the last end, as temporal hopes are ordered to the hope of achieving eternal life, that is full beatitude. We remember the saying of the Spanish philosopher Seneca: “There is no favorable wind for him who does not know where he is going.”
After studying the basic question on Beatitude, the Angelic Doctor goes on studying the first part of his morals, and in general (I-II), the basic ethical categories: human acts, morality, freedom conscience, law, sin, and virtue. In the second part of his moral theology, special morals (II-II), St. Thomas develops principally the seven virtues of human and Christian life: the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance) and the theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity). The theological ethics of the Common Doctor of the Church is positive ethics, an ethics of virtues or good habits.
Thomas’ morals begin then with the last end, which is full beatitude or perfect happiness, and ends with the beginning of a good Christian life, that is, with divine grace, which is the foundation of the spiritual/moral life.
The end of our actions is happiness. We all want to be happy, but it seems that unfortunately many among us are unhappy. As A. Camus said: “Men die and are not happy.” And we are not happy - at least relatively but really happy – because perhaps we place our happiness in places where happiness is not found, in utopian places, for instance in transhumanism, or because we place our happiness in the possession of false or insufficient objects, for instance in pride, in material possessions. Certainly, happiness on earth cannot be found in a place, an inheritance, a title, or a victory.
In his passionate search for full happiness, Aquinas approaches money, pleasure, power, science, and wisdom… to conclude that these objects can and must contribute to our happiness, but by themselves, they are insufficient and not the principal ones to give us some happiness here. The same measure we can apply to the currently dominating technology. Undoubtedly, technology is a great value, but carried out without a sound conscience, without respect for the basic human ethical principles and values cannot make us happy: it may even become our tyrant and manipulate us.
Evil causes unhappiness. As a modern philosopher underlines: “Evil [ethical evil] is always a degradation, a sinking” (José Antonio Marina). We can only be happy -Aristotle tells us – by doing good, that is, practicing virtues, which are the good habits that incline us strongly to do good in the different facets of life. Aquinas says that happiness “consists in the practice of virtue.” The practice of virtues (connected among themselves) is in itself the cause of happiness and, moreover, the road to greater happiness. Happiness is “the reward to virtue.”
A morally good life is a virtuous life. A good life is manifested in virtues, which are good operative habits that strongly incline to good actions (for instance, mercy inclines to merciful deeds), and good actions strengthen virtues. Virtue is a strong inclination to goodness, and the different virtues are firm dispositions to doing good deeds in the different spheres of life - personal, social, and spiritual.
A virtuous life is a loving life. A special virtue gives life to all other virtues: love or charity. From an ethical and spiritual perspective, without love, nothing has much value. Love, however, needs the other virtues to be able to walk and provide a blessed and happy temporal life, although imperfect. For Aquinas, happiness is the presence of true love in our life. For Christians and other believers, charity or love of God is the most perfect virtue and moves all other virtues, while compassion or mercy – the fruit of charity, with peace and joy - is the most perfect virtue in relation to the neighbor. Wise and relevant words: “It is not science that redeems man, but love” (Benedict XVI).
In Christian tradition, the last end is complete beatitude, full happiness, or supreme love, that is, God. In truth, “only God satisfies” (St. Thomas Aquinas). Later on, St. Teresa of Avila will say: “Only God suffices.” Undoubtedly, happiness is holiness. If we read the lives of the saints of the different religions, we shall see that the saints, intimately united to God, are the happiest persons in the world. Gandhi said: “The world needs saints, not politicians.”
In this world, the Beatitudes of Jesus (cf. Mt 5:3-11) lead us to the perfect Beatitude or complete happiness. As a good theologian has elegantly said, the Beatitudes are eight forms of happiness (J. M. Cabodevilla), that is, eight forms of loving. Without a doubt, happiness in this life consists essentially in loving God and neighbor - all neighbors -. in getting out of oneself to encounter the good Lord in himself, in our sisters and brothers, and in his awesome creation. Practicing the beatitudes here, the virtues of the Beatitudes, lead to full Beatitude hereafter.
In our world - materialistic, secular, and proud -, the moral values, the virtues, in particular, seem to count less and less. Generally, what appears to count today are not the basic human values, but what social majorities dictate, majorities at times manipulated by the invisible threads of the powerful and politicians without scruples, by the reigning ideologies. It continues to be true that the ethical fundamental values (freedom, truth, justice, solidarity) do not depend on majorities, but on the truth of human nature and its universal natural longing for happiness. In this context, it is good and refreshing to recall that true happiness comes from a good life, a virtuous life, which is hopeful, loving, and joyful. (FGB)
